Constructing Hypotheses in Quantitative Research
Hypotheses are the testable statements linked to your research question. Hypotheses bridge the gap from the general question you intend to investigate (i.e., the research question) to concise statements of what you hypothesize the connection between your variables to be. For example, if we were studying the influence of mentoring relationships on first-generation students’ intention to remain at their university, we might have the following research question:
“Does the presence of a mentoring relationship influence first-generation students’ intentions to remain at their university?”
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Although this statement clearly articulates the construct and specific variables we intend to study, we still have not identified exactly what we are testing. We use the hypotheses to make this clear. Specifically, we create null and alternate hypotheses to indicate exactly what we intend to test. In general, the null hypothesis states that there is no observable difference or relationship, and the alternate hypothesis states that there is an observable difference or relationship. In the example above, our hypotheses would be as follows:
Null hypothesis: The presence of a mentoring relationship does not influence first-generation students’ intention to remain at their university.
Alternate hypothesis: The presence of a mentoring relationship influences first-generation students’ intention to remain at their university.
Hypotheses may be worded with or without a direction. As written above, the hypotheses do not have a direction. To give them direction, we would consult previous literature to determine how a mentoring relationship is likely to influence intention to remain in school. If the research indicates that the presence of a mentoring relationship should increase students’ connections to the university and their willingness to remain, our alternate hypothesis would state:
“The presence of a mentoring relationship increases first-generation students’ intention to remain at their university.”
If the research indicates that the presence of a mentoring relationship minimizes students’ desire to make additional connections to the university and in turn decreases their willingness to remain, our alternate hypothesis would state:
“The presence of a mentoring relationship decreases first-generation students’ intention to remain at their university.”
Once you conduct your statistical analysis you will determine if the null hypothesis should be rejected in favor of the alternate hypothesis.
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How to Write a Hypothesis
Published by Alaxendra Bets at August 14th, 2021 , Revised On January 5, 2023
What is a Research Hypothesis?
You can test a research statement with the help of experimental or theoretical research, known as a hypothesis.
If you want to find out the similarities, differences, and relationships between variables, you must write a testable hypothesis before compiling the data, performing analysis, and generating results to complete.
The data analysis and findings will help you test the hypothesis and see whether it is true or false. Here is all you need to know about how to write a hypothesis for a dissertation .
Research Hypothesis Definition
Not sure what the meaning of the research hypothesis is? A research hypothesis predicts an answer to the research question based on existing theoretical knowledge or experimental data.
Some studies may have multiple hypothesis statements depending upon the research question(s). A research hypothesis must be based on formulas, facts, and theories. It should be testable by data analysis, observations, experiments, or other scientific methodologies that can refute or support the statement.
Variables in Hypotheses
Developing a hypothesis is easy. Most research studies have two or more variables in the hypothesis, particularly studies involving correlational and experimental research. The researcher can control or change the independent variable(s) while measuring and observing the independent variable(s).
“How long a student sleeps affects test scores.”
In the above statement, the dependent variable is the test score, while the independent variable is the length of time spent in sleep. Developing a hypothesis will be easy if you know your research’s dependent and independent variables.
Once you have developed a thesis statement, questions such as how to write a hypothesis for the dissertation and how to test a research hypothesis become pretty straightforward.
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Developing a Hypothesis
Here are the steps involved in how to write a hypothesis for a dissertation.
Ask a Question
A research question is a starting step for writing a research hypothesis in a dissertation. The question should be re-searchable within the given constraints. It should also be specific, focused, and answerable within the given time frame.
You will be able to write a perfect hypothesis when you have adequate knowledge about the topic. Make sure to acquire as much knowledge as possible on the topic you are exploring.
You can also create some conceptual formats to identify the variables and the relationship between them.
Formulate Your Hypothesis
Do you have a testable and specific hypothesis? If not, then make sure your hypothesis:
- Includes variables according to the research problem you wish to address
- Is relevant to your area of study
- Incorporates the expected outcome
Three Ways to Phrase a Hypothesis
Try to use “if”… and “then”… to identify the variables. The independent variable should be present in the first part of the hypothesis, while the dependent variable will form the second part of the statement. Consider understanding the below research hypothesis example to create a specific, clear, and concise research hypothesis;
If an obese lady starts attending Zomba fitness classes, her health will improve.
In academic research, you can write the predicted variable relationship directly because most research studies correlate terms.
The number of Zomba fitness classes attended by the obese lady has a positive effect on health.
If your research compares two groups, then you can develop a hypothesis statement on their differences.
An obese lady who attended most Zumba fitness classes will have better health than those who attended a few.
How to Write a Null Hypothesis
If a statistical analysis is involved in your research, then you must create a null hypothesis. If you find any relationship between the variables, then the null hypothesis will be the default position that there is no relationship between them. H0 is the symbol for the null hypothesis, while the hypothesis is represented as H1. The null hypothesis will also answer your question, “how to test the research hypothesis in the dissertation.”
H0: The number of Zumba fitness classes attended by the obese lady does not affect health.
H1: The number of Zumba fitness classes attended by the obese lady positively affects health.
Also see: Your Dissertation in Education
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If you are unsure about how to rest a research hypothesis in a dissertation or simply unsure about how to develop a hypothesis for your research, then you can take advantage of our dissertation services which cover every tiny aspect of a dissertation project you might need help with including but not limited to setting up a hypothesis and research questions, help with individual chapters , full dissertation writing , statistical analysis , and much more.
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- How To Write A Null And Alternative Hypothesis: A Guide With Examples
How to Write a Null and Alternative Hypothesis: A Guide with Examples
When undertaking a qualitative or quantitative research project, researchers must first formulate a research question, from which they develop a hypothesis. By definition, a hypothesis is a prediction that a researcher makes about the research question and can either be affirmative or negative. In this case, a research question has three main components: variables (independent and dependent), a population sample, and the relation between the variables. When the prediction contradicts the research question, it is referred to as a null hypothesis. In short, a null hypothesis is a statement that implies there is no relationship between independent and dependent variables. Hence, researchers need to learn how to write a good null and alternative hypothesis to present quality studies.
General Aspect of Writing a Null and Alternative Hypothesis
Students with qualitative or quantitative research assignments must learn how to formulate and write a good research question and hypothesis. By definition, a hypothesis is an assumption or prediction that a researcher makes before undertaking an experimental investigation. Basically, academic standards require such a prediction to be a precise and testable statement, meaning that researchers must prove or disapprove it in the course of the assignment. In this case, the main components of a hypothesis are variables (independent and dependent), a population sample, and the relation between the variables. Therefore, a research hypothesis is a prediction that researchers write about the relationship between two or more variables. In turn, the research inquiry is the process that seeks to answer the research question and, in the process, test the hypothesis by confirming or disapproving it.
Types of Hypotheses
There are several types of hypotheses, including an alternative hypothesis, a null hypothesis, a directional hypothesis, and a non-directional hypothesis. Basically, the directional hypothesis is a prediction of how the independent variable affects the dependent variable. In contrast, the non-directional hypothesis predicts that the independent variable influences the dependent variable, but does not specify how. Regardless of the type, all hypotheses are about predicting the relationship between the independent and dependent variables.
What is a Null and Alternative Hypothesis
A null hypothesis, usually symbolized as “H0,” is a statement that contradicts the research hypothesis. In other words, it is a negative statement, indicating that there is no relationship between the independent and dependent variables. By testing the null hypothesis, a researcher can determine whether the inquiry results are due to the chance or the effect of manipulating the dependent variable. In most instances, a null hypothesis corresponds with an alternative hypothesis, a positive statement that covers a relationship that exists between the independent and dependent variables. Also, it is highly recommendable that a researcher should write the alternative hypothesis first before the null hypothesis.
10 Examples of Research Questions with H0 and H1 Hypotheses
Before developing a hypothesis, a researcher must formulate the research question. Then, the next step is to transform the question into a negative statement that claims the lack of a relationship between the independent and dependent variables. Alternatively, researchers can change the question into a positive statement that includes a relationship that exists between the variables. In turn, this latter statement becomes the alternative hypothesis and is symbolized as H1. Hence, some of the examples of research questions and hull and alternative hypotheses are as follows:
1. Do physical exercises help individuals to age gracefully?
A Null Hypothesis (H0): Physical exercises are not a guarantee to graceful old age.
An Alternative Hypothesis (H1): Engaging in physical exercises enables individuals to remain healthy and active into old age.
2. What are the implications of therapeutic interventions in the fight against substance abuse?
H0: Therapeutic interventions are of no help in the fight against substance abuse.
H1: Exposing individuals with substance abuse disorders to therapeutic interventions helps control and even stop their addictions.
3. How do sexual orientation and gender identity affect the experiences of late adolescents in foster care?
H0: Sexual orientation and gender identity have no effects on the experiences of late adolescents in foster care.
H1: The reality of stereotypes in society makes sexual orientation and gender identity factors complicate the experiences of late adolescents in foster care.
4. Does income inequality contribute to crime in high-density urban areas?
H0: There is no correlation between income inequality and incidences of crime in high-density urban areas.
H1: The high crime rates in high-density urban areas are due to the incidence of income inequality in those areas.
5. Does placement in foster care impact individuals’ mental health?
H0: There is no correlation between being in foster care and having mental health problems.
H1: Individuals placed in foster care experience anxiety and depression at one point in their life.
6. Do assistive devices and technologies lessen the mobility challenges of older adults with a stroke?
H0: Assistive devices and technologies do not provide any assistance to the mobility of older adults diagnosed with a stroke.
H1: Assistive devices and technologies enhance the mobility of older adults diagnosed with a stroke.
7. Does race identity undermine classroom participation?
H0: There is no correlation between racial identity and the ability to participate in classroom learning.
H1: Students from racial minorities are not as active as white students in classroom participation.
8. Do high school grades determine future success?
H0: There is no correlation between how one performs in high school and their success level in life.
H1: Attaining high grades in high school positions one for greater success in the future personal and professional lives.
9. Does critical thinking predict academic achievement?
H0: There is no correlation between critical thinking and academic achievement.
H1: Being a critical thinker is a pathway to academic success.
10. What benefits does group therapy provide to victims of domestic violence?
H0: Group therapy does not help victims of domestic violence because individuals prefer to hide rather than expose their shame.
H1: Group therapy provides domestic violence victims with a platform to share their hurt and connect with others with similar experiences.
Summing Up on How to Write a Null and Alternative Hypothesis
The formulation of research questions in qualitative and quantitative assignments helps students develop a hypothesis for their experiment. In this case, learning how to write a good hypothesis that helps students and researchers to make their research relevant. Basically, the difference between a null and alternative hypothesis is that the former contradicts the research question, while the latter affirms it. In short, a null hypothesis is a negative statement relative to the research question, and an alternative hypothesis is a positive statement. Moreover, it is important to note that developing the null hypothesis at the beginning of the assignment is for prediction purposes. As such, the research work answers the research question and confirms or disapproves of the hypothesis. Hence, some of the tips that students and researchers need to know when developing a null hypothesis include:
- Formulate a research question that specifies the relationship between an independent variable and a dependent variable.
- Develop an alternative hypothesis that says a relationship that exists between the variables.
- Develop a null hypothesis that says a relationship that does not exist between the variables.
- Conduct the research to answer the research question, which allows the confirmation of a disapproval of a null hypothesis.
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Quantitative Research Hypothesis Examples
In general, a researcher arranges hypotheses based on the formulation of problems and theoretical studies. For quantitative research, the hypothesis used is a statistical hypothesis, meaning that the hypothesis must be tested using statistical rules. Whereas for qualitative research does not need to use statistical rules. In a quantitative study, the formulated statistical hypothesis has two forms, the null hypothesis (Ho) and the alternative hypothesis (Ha). In general, hypotheses for quantitative research have three types: Descriptive Hypothesis, Comparative Hypothesis, and Associative Hypothesis.
Descriptive Hypothesis
Descriptive hypotheses are temporary conjectures about the value of a variable, not expressing relationships or comparisons. Remember, only about the value of a variable. Statistics used to test descriptive hypotheses are sample mean tests or standard deviation tests. A researcher formulates hypothesis based on the problem formulation and theoretical study. Following are some examples of problem formulations (PF), hypotheses (H). PF: What is the percentage of junior high school mathematics mastery in the subject matter of the set? H: Junior high school mathematics teacher mastery in the subject matter reaches 70%.
PF: How good is the grade XI mastery of class XI material? H: mastery of class X material by class XI students reaches 75%.
Comparative Hypothesis
The comparative hypothesis is a temporary construct that compares the values of two variables. That is, in the comparative hypothesis, we do not determine with certainty the value of the variables we examine, but compare. Means, there are two variables that are the same, but different samples. The statistics used to test this comparative hypothesis are (assuming normality is met) using a t-test. But before that, the normality and homogeneity must be tested first. Following are some examples of problem formulations (PF), hypotheses (H). PF: Is there a difference in the problem-solving abilities of students who got X learning better than students who got Y learning? H: the problem solving ability of students who get learning X is better than students who get learning Y.
PF: Are there differences in the critical thinking skills of students who study during the day are better than students who study in the morning? H: there is no difference in the critical thinking skills of students who study in the afternoon with students who study in the morning.
The two hypothetical examples above are slightly different. In the first hypothesis, we claim that the problem solving ability of students who get learning X is better than students who get learning Y. While in the second hypothesis, there is no one-sided claim that the critical thinking skills of students who learn during the day are better or worse. We only state that there are differences. Which problem is better, it does not concern this hypothesis. The first hypothesis is a one-party test hypothesis, while the second hypothesis is called a two-party test hypothesis.
Associative Quantitative Hypothesis
The associative hypothesis is a relationship between the relationship between two variables, the dependent variable and the independent variable. The statistics are used to test this comparative hypothesis are (assuming normality is met) using Product Moment Correlation, Double Correlation, or Partial Correlation. The following are examples of problem formulations (PF), hypotheses (H). PF: Is there a relationship between student achievement and the level of student anxiety? H: there is a negative relationship between student achievement with the level of student anxiety.
PF: Is there a relationship between student learning outcomes and seating arrangements? H: there is a positive relationship between student achievement with the level of student anxiety. In the first hypothesis there are the words ‘negative relationship’. Negative relationship means inversely proportional. That is if the level of student anxiety is high, then student achievement is low. Whereas in the second hypothesis there are the words ‘positive relationship’. Positive relationship means directly proportional. It means if the seating arrangement is good, the student learning outcomes are high.
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The Craft of Writing a Strong Hypothesis
Table of Contents
Writing a hypothesis is one of the essential elements of a scientific research paper. It needs to be to the point, clearly communicating what your research is trying to accomplish. A blurry, drawn-out, or complexly-structured hypothesis can confuse your readers. Or worse, the editor and peer reviewers.
A captivating hypothesis is not too intricate. This blog will take you through the process so that, by the end of it, you have a better idea of how to convey your research paper's intent in just one sentence.
What is a Hypothesis?
The first step in your scientific endeavor, a hypothesis, is a strong, concise statement that forms the basis of your research. It is not the same as a thesis statement , which is a brief summary of your research paper.
The sole purpose of a hypothesis is to predict your paper's findings, data, and conclusion. It comes from a place of curiosity and intuition . When you write a hypothesis, you're essentially making an educated guess based on scientific prejudices and evidence, which is further proven or disproven through the scientific method.
The reason for undertaking research is to observe a specific phenomenon. A hypothesis, therefore, lays out what the said phenomenon is. And it does so through two variables, an independent and dependent variable.
The independent variable is the cause behind the observation, while the dependent variable is the effect of the cause. A good example of this is “mixing red and blue forms purple.” In this hypothesis, mixing red and blue is the independent variable as you're combining the two colors at your own will. The formation of purple is the dependent variable as, in this case, it is conditional to the independent variable.
Different Types of Hypotheses
Types of hypotheses
Some would stand by the notion that there are only two types of hypotheses: a Null hypothesis and an Alternative hypothesis. While that may have some truth to it, it would be better to fully distinguish the most common forms as these terms come up so often, which might leave you out of context.
Apart from Null and Alternative, there are Complex, Simple, Directional, Non-Directional, Statistical, and Associative and casual hypotheses. They don't necessarily have to be exclusive, as one hypothesis can tick many boxes, but knowing the distinctions between them will make it easier for you to construct your own.
1. Null hypothesis
A null hypothesis proposes no relationship between two variables. Denoted by H 0 , it is a negative statement like “Attending physiotherapy sessions does not affect athletes' on-field performance.” Here, the author claims physiotherapy sessions have no effect on on-field performances. Even if there is, it's only a coincidence.
2. Alternative hypothesis
Considered to be the opposite of a null hypothesis, an alternative hypothesis is donated as H1 or Ha. It explicitly states that the dependent variable affects the independent variable. A good alternative hypothesis example is “Attending physiotherapy sessions improves athletes' on-field performance.” or “Water evaporates at 100 °C. ” The alternative hypothesis further branches into directional and non-directional.
- Directional hypothesis: A hypothesis that states the result would be either positive or negative is called directional hypothesis. It accompanies H1 with either the ‘<' or ‘>' sign.
- Non-directional hypothesis: A non-directional hypothesis only claims an effect on the dependent variable. It does not clarify whether the result would be positive or negative. The sign for a non-directional hypothesis is ‘≠.'
3. Simple hypothesis
A simple hypothesis is a statement made to reflect the relation between exactly two variables. One independent and one dependent. Consider the example, “Smoking is a prominent cause of lung cancer." The dependent variable, lung cancer, is dependent on the independent variable, smoking.
4. Complex hypothesis
In contrast to a simple hypothesis, a complex hypothesis implies the relationship between multiple independent and dependent variables. For instance, “Individuals who eat more fruits tend to have higher immunity, lesser cholesterol, and high metabolism.” The independent variable is eating more fruits, while the dependent variables are higher immunity, lesser cholesterol, and high metabolism.
5. Associative and casual hypothesis
Associative and casual hypotheses don't exhibit how many variables there will be. They define the relationship between the variables. In an associative hypothesis, changing any one variable, dependent or independent, affects others. In a casual hypothesis, the independent variable directly affects the dependent.
6. Empirical hypothesis
Also referred to as the working hypothesis, an empirical hypothesis claims a theory's validation via experiments and observation. This way, the statement appears justifiable and different from a wild guess.
Say, the hypothesis is “Women who take iron tablets face a lesser risk of anemia than those who take vitamin B12.” This is an example of an empirical hypothesis where the researcher the statement after assessing a group of women who take iron tablets and charting the findings.
7. Statistical hypothesis
The point of a statistical hypothesis is to test an already existing hypothesis by studying a population sample. Hypothesis like “44% of the Indian population belong in the age group of 22-27.” leverage evidence to prove or disprove a particular statement.
Characteristics of a Good Hypothesis
Writing a hypothesis is essential as it can make or break your research for you. That includes your chances of getting published in a journal. So when you're designing one, keep an eye out for these pointers:
- A research hypothesis has to be simple yet clear to look justifiable enough.
- It has to be testable — your research would be rendered pointless if too far-fetched into reality or limited by technology.
- It has to be precise about the results —what you are trying to do and achieve through it should come out in your hypothesis.
- A research hypothesis should be self-explanatory, leaving no doubt in the reader's mind.
- If you are developing a relational hypothesis, you need to include the variables and establish an appropriate relationship among them.
- A hypothesis must keep and reflect the scope for further investigations and experiments.
Separating a Hypothesis from a Prediction
Outside of academia, hypothesis and prediction are often used interchangeably. In research writing, this is not only confusing but also incorrect. And although a hypothesis and prediction are guesses at their core, there are many differences between them.
A hypothesis is an educated guess or even a testable prediction validated through research. It aims to analyze the gathered evidence and facts to define a relationship between variables and put forth a logical explanation behind the nature of events.
Predictions are assumptions or expected outcomes made without any backing evidence. They are more fictionally inclined regardless of where they originate from.
For this reason, a hypothesis holds much more weight than a prediction. It sticks to the scientific method rather than pure guesswork. "Planets revolve around the Sun." is an example of a hypothesis as it is previous knowledge and observed trends. Additionally, we can test it through the scientific method.
Whereas "COVID-19 will be eradicated by 2030." is a prediction. Even though it results from past trends, we can't prove or disprove it. So, the only way this gets validated is to wait and watch if COVID-19 cases end by 2030.
Finally, How to Write a Hypothesis
Quick tips on writing a hypothesis
1. Be clear about your research question
A hypothesis should instantly address the research question or the problem statement. To do so, you need to ask a question. Understand the constraints of your undertaken research topic and then formulate a simple and topic-centric problem. Only after that can you develop a hypothesis and further test for evidence.
2. Carry out a recce
Once you have your research's foundation laid out, it would be best to conduct preliminary research. Go through previous theories, academic papers, data, and experiments before you start curating your research hypothesis. It will give you an idea of your hypothesis's viability or originality.
Making use of references from relevant research papers helps draft a good research hypothesis. SciSpace Discover offers a repository of over 270 million research papers to browse through and gain a deeper understanding of related studies on a particular topic. Additionally, you can use SciSpace Copilot , your AI research assistant, for reading any lengthy research paper and getting a more summarized context of it. A hypothesis can be formed after evaluating many such summarized research papers. Copilot also offers explanations for theories and equations, explains paper in simplified version, allows you to highlight any text in the paper or clip math equations and tables and provides a deeper, clear understanding of what is being said. This can improve the hypothesis by helping you identify potential research gaps.
3. Create a 3-dimensional hypothesis
Variables are an essential part of any reasonable hypothesis. So, identify your independent and dependent variable(s) and form a correlation between them. The ideal way to do this is to write the hypothetical assumption in the ‘if-then' form. If you use this form, make sure that you state the predefined relationship between the variables.
In another way, you can choose to present your hypothesis as a comparison between two variables. Here, you must specify the difference you expect to observe in the results.
4. Write the first draft
Now that everything is in place, it's time to write your hypothesis. For starters, create the first draft. In this version, write what you expect to find from your research.
Clearly separate your independent and dependent variables and the link between them. Don't fixate on syntax at this stage. The goal is to ensure your hypothesis addresses the issue.
5. Proof your hypothesis
After preparing the first draft of your hypothesis, you need to inspect it thoroughly. It should tick all the boxes, like being concise, straightforward, relevant, and accurate. Your final hypothesis has to be well-structured as well.
Research projects are an exciting and crucial part of being a scholar. And once you have your research question, you need a great hypothesis to begin conducting research. Thus, knowing how to write a hypothesis is very important.
Now that you have a firmer grasp on what a good hypothesis constitutes, the different kinds there are, and what process to follow, you will find it much easier to write your hypothesis, which ultimately helps your research.
Now it's easier than ever to streamline your research workflow with SciSpace Discover . Its integrated, comprehensive end-to-end platform for research allows scholars to easily discover, write and publish their research and fosters collaboration.
It includes everything you need, including a repository of over 270 million research papers across disciplines, SEO-optimized summaries and public profiles to show your expertise and experience.
If you found these tips on writing a research hypothesis useful, head over to our blog on Statistical Hypothesis Testing to learn about the top researchers, papers, and institutions in this domain.
Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs)
1. what is the definition of hypothesis.
According to the Oxford dictionary, a hypothesis is defined as “An idea or explanation of something that is based on a few known facts, but that has not yet been proved to be true or correct”.
2. What is an example of hypothesis?
The hypothesis is a statement that proposes a relationship between two or more variables. An example: "If we increase the number of new users who join our platform by 25%, then we will see an increase in revenue."
3. What is an example of null hypothesis?
A null hypothesis is a statement that there is no relationship between two variables. The null hypothesis is written as H0. The null hypothesis states that there is no effect. For example, if you're studying whether or not a particular type of exercise increases strength, your null hypothesis will be "there is no difference in strength between people who exercise and people who don't."
4. What are the types of research?
• Fundamental research
• Applied research
• Qualitative research
• Quantitative research
• Mixed research
• Exploratory research
• Longitudinal research
• Cross-sectional research
• Field research
• Laboratory research
• Fixed research
• Flexible research
• Action research
• Policy research
• Classification research
• Comparative research
• Causal research
• Inductive research
• Deductive research
5. How to write a hypothesis?
• Your hypothesis should be able to predict the relationship and outcome.
• Avoid wordiness by keeping it simple and brief.
• Your hypothesis should contain observable and testable outcomes.
• Your hypothesis should be relevant to the research question.
6. What are the 2 types of hypothesis?
• Null hypotheses are used to test the claim that "there is no difference between two groups of data".
• Alternative hypotheses test the claim that "there is a difference between two data groups".
7. Difference between research question and research hypothesis?
A research question is a broad, open-ended question you will try to answer through your research. A hypothesis is a statement based on prior research or theory that you expect to be true due to your study. Example - Research question: What are the factors that influence the adoption of the new technology? Research hypothesis: There is a positive relationship between age, education and income level with the adoption of the new technology.
8. What is plural for hypothesis?
The plural of hypothesis is hypotheses. Here's an example of how it would be used in a statement, "Numerous well-considered hypotheses are presented in this part, and they are supported by tables and figures that are well-illustrated."
9. What is the red queen hypothesis?
The red queen hypothesis in evolutionary biology states that species must constantly evolve to avoid extinction because if they don't, they will be outcompeted by other species that are evolving. Leigh Van Valen first proposed it in 1973; since then, it has been tested and substantiated many times.
10. Who is known as the father of null hypothesis?
The father of the null hypothesis is Sir Ronald Fisher. He published a paper in 1925 that introduced the concept of null hypothesis testing, and he was also the first to use the term itself.
11. When to reject null hypothesis?
You need to find a significant difference between your two populations to reject the null hypothesis. You can determine that by running statistical tests such as an independent sample t-test or a dependent sample t-test. You should reject the null hypothesis if the p-value is less than 0.05.
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How to Develop a Good Research Hypothesis
The story of a research study begins by asking a question. Researchers all around the globe are asking curious questions and formulating research hypothesis. However, whether the research study provides an effective conclusion depends on how well one develops a good research hypothesis. Research hypothesis examples could help researchers get an idea as to how to write a good research hypothesis.
This blog will help you understand what is a research hypothesis, its characteristics and, how to formulate a research hypothesis
Table of Contents
What is Hypothesis?
Hypothesis is an assumption or an idea proposed for the sake of argument so that it can be tested. It is a precise, testable statement of what the researchers predict will be outcome of the study. Hypothesis usually involves proposing a relationship between two variables: the independent variable (what the researchers change) and the dependent variable (what the research measures).
What is a Research Hypothesis?
Research hypothesis is a statement that introduces a research question and proposes an expected result. It is an integral part of the scientific method that forms the basis of scientific experiments. Therefore, you need to be careful and thorough when building your research hypothesis. A minor flaw in the construction of your hypothesis could have an adverse effect on your experiment. In research, there is a convention that the hypothesis is written in two forms, the null hypothesis, and the alternative hypothesis (called the experimental hypothesis when the method of investigation is an experiment).
Essential Characteristics of a Good Research Hypothesis
As the hypothesis is specific, there is a testable prediction about what you expect to happen in a study. You may consider drawing hypothesis from previously published research based on the theory.
A good research hypothesis involves more effort than just a guess. In particular, your hypothesis may begin with a question that could be further explored through background research.
To help you formulate a promising research hypothesis, you should ask yourself the following questions:
- Is the language clear and focused?
- What is the relationship between your hypothesis and your research topic?
- Is your hypothesis testable? If yes, then how?
- What are the possible explanations that you might want to explore?
- Does your hypothesis include both an independent and dependent variable?
- Can you manipulate your variables without hampering the ethical standards?
- Does your research predict the relationship and outcome?
- Is your research simple and concise (avoids wordiness)?
- Is it clear with no ambiguity or assumptions about the readers’ knowledge
- Is your research observable and testable results?
- Is it relevant and specific to the research question or problem?
The questions listed above can be used as a checklist to make sure your hypothesis is based on a solid foundation. Furthermore, it can help you identify weaknesses in your hypothesis and revise it if necessary.
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How to formulate an effective research hypothesis.
A testable hypothesis is not a simple statement. It is rather an intricate statement that needs to offer a clear introduction to a scientific experiment, its intentions, and the possible outcomes. However, there are some important things to consider when building a compelling hypothesis.
1. State the problem that you are trying to solve.
Make sure that the hypothesis clearly defines the topic and the focus of the experiment.
2. Try to write the hypothesis as an if-then statement.
Follow this template: If a specific action is taken, then a certain outcome is expected.
3. Define the variables
Independent variables are the ones that are manipulated, controlled, or changed. Independent variables are isolated from other factors of the study.
Dependent variables , as the name suggests are dependent on other factors of the study. They are influenced by the change in independent variable.
4. Scrutinize the hypothesis
The types of research hypothesis are stated below:
1. Simple Hypothesis
It predicts the relationship between a single dependent variable and a single independent variable.
2. Complex Hypothesis
It predicts the relationship between two or more independent and dependent variables.
3. Directional Hypothesis
It specifies the expected direction to be followed to determine the relationship between variables and is derived from theory. Furthermore, it implies the researcher’s intellectual commitment to a particular outcome.
4. Non-directional Hypothesis
It does not predict the exact direction or nature of the relationship between the two variables. The non-directional hypothesis is used when there is no theory involved or when findings contradict previous research.
5. Associative and Causal Hypothesis
The associative hypothesis defines interdependency between variables. A change in one variable results in the change of the other variable. On the other hand, the causal hypothesis proposes an effect on the dependent due to manipulation of the independent variable.
6. Null Hypothesis
Null hypothesis states a negative statement to support the researcher’s findings that there is no relationship between two variables. There will be no changes in the dependent variable due the manipulation of the independent variable. Furthermore, it states results are due to chance and are not significant in terms of supporting the idea being investigated.
7. Alternative Hypothesis
It states that there is a relationship between the two variables of the study and that the results are significant to the research topic. An experimental hypothesis predicts what changes will take place in the dependent variable when the independent variable is manipulated. Also, it states that the results are not due to chance and that they are significant in terms of supporting the theory being investigated.
Research Hypothesis Examples of Independent and Dependent Variables:
Research Hypothesis Example 1 The greater number of coal plants in a region (independent variable) increases water pollution (dependent variable). If you change the independent variable (building more coal factories), it will change the dependent variable (amount of water pollution).
Research Hypothesis Example 2 What is the effect of diet or regular soda (independent variable) on blood sugar levels (dependent variable)? If you change the independent variable (the type of soda you consume), it will change the dependent variable (blood sugar levels)
You should not ignore the importance of the above steps. The validity of your experiment and its results rely on a robust testable hypothesis. Developing a strong testable hypothesis has few advantages, it compels us to think intensely and specifically about the outcomes of a study. Consequently, it enables us to understand the implication of the question and the different variables involved in the study. Furthermore, it helps us to make precise predictions based on prior research. Hence, forming a hypothesis would be of great value to the research. Here are some good examples of testable hypotheses.
More importantly, you need to build a robust testable research hypothesis for your scientific experiments. A testable hypothesis is a hypothesis that can be proved or disproved as a result of experimentation.
Importance of a Testable Hypothesis
To devise and perform an experiment using scientific method, you need to make sure that your hypothesis is testable. To be considered testable, some essential criteria must be met:
- There must be a possibility to prove that the hypothesis is true.
- There must be a possibility to prove that the hypothesis is false.
- The results of the hypothesis must be reproducible.
Without these criteria, the hypothesis and the results will be vague. As a result, the experiment will not prove or disprove anything significant.
What are your experiences with building hypotheses for scientific experiments? What challenges did you face? How did you overcome these challenges? Please share your thoughts with us in the comments section.
Wow! You really simplified your explanation that even dummies would find it easy to comprehend. Thank you so much.
Thanks a lot for your valuable guidance.
I enjoy reading the post. Hypotheses are actually an intrinsic part in a study. It bridges the research question and the methodology of the study.
Useful piece!
This is awesome.Wow.
It very interesting to read the topic, can you guide me any specific example of hypothesis process establish throw the Demand and supply of the specific product in market
Nicely explained
It is really a useful for me Kindly give some examples of hypothesis
It was a well explained content ,can you please give me an example with the null and alternative hypothesis illustrated
clear and concise. thanks.
So Good so Amazing
Good to learn
Thanks a lot for explaining to my level of understanding
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What is a Research Hypothesis And How to Write it?
September 27, 2020 By Hitesh Bhasin Filed Under: Market Research
A research hypothesis can be defined as a clear, specific and predictive statement that states the possible outcome of a scientific study. The result of the research study is based on previous research studies and can be tested by scientific research.
The research hypothesis is written before the beginning of any scientific research or data collection.
Table of Contents
What is Research Hypothesis?
The research hypothesis is the first step and basis of all research endeavours. The research hypothesis shows what you want to prove with your research study. Therefore, the research hypothesis should be written first before you begin the study, no matter what kind of research study you are conducting.
The research hypothesis shows the direction to the researcher conducting the research. It states what the researcher expects to find from the study. It is a tentative answer that guides the entire research study.
Writing a research hypothesis is not an easy task. It requires skills to write a testable research hypothesis. The researcher is required to study the research done by other researchers on the same subject and find out the loopholes in those researches to make it the basis for their research.
Make sure to consider the general research question posed in the study before jumping directly to write a research hypothesis. Pointing out the exact question can be very difficult for researchers as most researchers are usually not aware of what they are trying to find from their research study. Moreover, the added excitement to conduct the study makes it even more difficult for the researchers to pin down the exact research hypothesis.
There are two primary criteria to develop a reasonable research hypothesis. First, the research hypothesis should be researchable and second; it must be interesting. By researchable, we mean that the question in the research hypothesis statement should be able to be answered with the help of science and the answer to the question should be answerable within a reasonable period.
The research hypothesis being interesting means that the research question should be valuable in the context of the ongoing scientific research of the topic.
Let us learn about the research hypothesis in quantitative and qualitative studies:
Research hypothesis in Quantitative studies
The research hypothesis in a quantitative study consists of one independent variable and one dependent variable, and the research hypothesis mentions the expected relationship between both of the variables.
The independent variable is mentioned first in the research hypothesis followed by explanations and results, etc. and then the dependent variable is specified. Make sure that the variables are referred to in the same order as they are mentioned in the research hypothesis; otherwise, there are chances that your readers get confused while reading your research proposal.
When both variables are used in continuous nature, then it is easy to describe negative or positive relationships between both of them. In the case of categorical variables, the hypothesis statement about which category of independent variables is associated with which group of dependent variables.
It is good to represent the research hypothesis in directional format. That means, the statement is made about the expected relationship between the variables based on past research, the study of existing research, on an educational guess, or only by observation.
Additionally, the null hypothesis can also be used between two variables which state that there is no relationship between the variables. The null hypothesis is the basis of all types of statistical research.
Lastly, a simple research hypothesis for quantitative research should provide a direction for the study of the relationship between two variables. Still, it should also use phrases like “tend to” or “in general” to soften the tone of the hypothesis.
Research hypothesis in qualitative research
The role of the research hypothesis in qualitative research is different as compared to its role in quantitative research. The research hypothesis is not developed at the beginning of the research because of the inductive nature of the qualitative studies.
The research hypothesis is introduced during the iterative process of data collection and the Interpretation of the data. The research hypothesis helps the researchers ask more questions and look for answers for disconfirming evidence.
The qualitative study is dependent on the questions and subquestions asked by the researchers at the beginning of the qualitative research. Generally, in qualitative studies one or two central questions are developed and based on these central questions a series of five to ten subquestions is built and these sub-questions are further used to develop central questions for the research purpose.
In qualitative studies, these questions are directly asked the participant of the research study usually through focus groups or in-depth interviews. This is done to develop an understanding between participants of the study and the researchers. This helps in creating a collaborative experience between the two.
Variables in hypothesis
In research studies like correlational research and experimental studies, a hypothesis shows a relationship between two or more variables. There is an independent variable and a dependent variable.
An independent variable is a variable that a researcher can control and change, whereas, a dependent variable is a variable that the researcher measures and observes.
For example, regular exercise lowers the chances of a heart attack. In this example, the regular exercise is an independent variable and probabilities of occurrence of heart attack is a dependent variable that researchers can measure by observation.
How to develop a reasonable research hypothesis?
A research hypothesis plays an essential role in the research study. Therefore, it is necessary to develop an accurate and precise research hypothesis. In this section, you will learn how to develop a reasonable research hypothesis. The following are the steps involved in developing a research hypothesis.
Step 1. Have a question?
The first step involved in writing a research hypothesis is having a question that you want to answer. This question should be specific and within the scope of your research area. Make sure that the question that you ask is researchable within the time duration of your research study. The examples of research hypothesis questions can be
- Do students who attend classes regularly score more in exams?
- Do people prefer to buy products that have a high price as compared to the other similar products available in the market?
Step 2. Do some preliminary research:
Preliminary research is conducted before a researcher decides his research hypothesis. In the preliminary research, all the knowledge available about the question is collected by studying the theories and previous studies.
Having this knowledge helps the researchers to form educational assumptions about the outcomes of the research. At this stage, the researcher might prepare a conceptual framework to determine which variable should be studied and what you think is the relationship between the different variables.
The preliminary study also helps the researcher to change the topic if he feels the problem doesn’t have much scope for research.
Step 3. Formulation of hypothesis:
At this stage, the final research hypothesis is formulated. At this stage, the researcher has some idea of what he should expect from the research study. Write the answer to the question of research hypothesis in concise and clear sentences.
The clearer the research hypothesis, the easier will be for researchers to conduct the research.
Step 4. Refine the final hypothesis:
It is essential to make sure that your research hypothesis is testable and specific. You can define a hypothesis in different ways, but you should make sure that all the words that you use in your research hypothesis have precise definitions.
Besides, your hypothesis should contain a set of variables, the relationship between the variables, specific group being studied, and already predicted the outcome of the research.
Step 5. Use three methods to phrase your hypothesis:
They establish a clear relationship between variables, write the hypothesis in if.. then form. The first part of the sentence should be an independent variable, and the second part of the variable should state the dependent variable.
For example, if a student attends 100% classes in a semester, then he will score more than 90% in the exams.
In academic research, the research hypotheses are formed in terms of correlations or effects. In such hypotheses, the relationship between the variables is directly stated in the research hypothesis.
For example, the high numbers of lectures attended by students have a positive impact on their results.
When you are writing a research hypothesis to compare two groups, the hypothesis should state what the differences you are expecting to find in both the groups are.
For example, the students who have more than 70% attendance will score better in exams than the students who have lower than 50% attendance.
Step 6. Write the Null hypothesis:
A null hypothesis is written when research involves statistical hypothesis testing. A null hypothesis when there is no specific relationship between the variables.
It is a default position that shows that two variables used in the hypothesis are not related to each other. A null hypothesis is usually written as H0, and alternative hypotheses are written as H1 or Ha.
Importance of Research Hypothesis
Research plays an essential role in every field. To experiment, a researcher needs to make sure that the research he wants to conduct is testable. A research hypothesis is developed after conducting a preliminary study.
A preliminary study is the study of previous studies done by researchers and the study of research papers written on the same concept. With the help of the research hypothesis, a researcher makes sure that he is not hidden towards a dead end, and it works as a direction map for the researcher.
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- How to Write a Strong Hypothesis | Guide & Examples
How to Write a Strong Hypothesis | Guide & Examples
Published on 6 May 2022 by Shona McCombes .
A hypothesis is a statement that can be tested by scientific research. If you want to test a relationship between two or more variables, you need to write hypotheses before you start your experiment or data collection.
Table of contents
What is a hypothesis, developing a hypothesis (with example), hypothesis examples, frequently asked questions about writing hypotheses.
A hypothesis states your predictions about what your research will find. It is a tentative answer to your research question that has not yet been tested. For some research projects, you might have to write several hypotheses that address different aspects of your research question.
A hypothesis is not just a guess – it should be based on existing theories and knowledge. It also has to be testable, which means you can support or refute it through scientific research methods (such as experiments, observations, and statistical analysis of data).
Variables in hypotheses
Hypotheses propose a relationship between two or more variables . An independent variable is something the researcher changes or controls. A dependent variable is something the researcher observes and measures.
In this example, the independent variable is exposure to the sun – the assumed cause . The dependent variable is the level of happiness – the assumed effect .
Step 1: Ask a question
Writing a hypothesis begins with a research question that you want to answer. The question should be focused, specific, and researchable within the constraints of your project.
Step 2: Do some preliminary research
Your initial answer to the question should be based on what is already known about the topic. Look for theories and previous studies to help you form educated assumptions about what your research will find.
At this stage, you might construct a conceptual framework to identify which variables you will study and what you think the relationships are between them. Sometimes, you’ll have to operationalise more complex constructs.
Step 3: Formulate your hypothesis
Now you should have some idea of what you expect to find. Write your initial answer to the question in a clear, concise sentence.
Step 4: Refine your hypothesis
You need to make sure your hypothesis is specific and testable. There are various ways of phrasing a hypothesis, but all the terms you use should have clear definitions, and the hypothesis should contain:
- The relevant variables
- The specific group being studied
- The predicted outcome of the experiment or analysis
Step 5: Phrase your hypothesis in three ways
To identify the variables, you can write a simple prediction in if … then form. The first part of the sentence states the independent variable and the second part states the dependent variable.
In academic research, hypotheses are more commonly phrased in terms of correlations or effects, where you directly state the predicted relationship between variables.
If you are comparing two groups, the hypothesis can state what difference you expect to find between them.
Step 6. Write a null hypothesis
If your research involves statistical hypothesis testing , you will also have to write a null hypothesis. The null hypothesis is the default position that there is no association between the variables. The null hypothesis is written as H 0 , while the alternative hypothesis is H 1 or H a .
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Hypothesis testing is a formal procedure for investigating our ideas about the world using statistics. It is used by scientists to test specific predictions, called hypotheses , by calculating how likely it is that a pattern or relationship between variables could have arisen by chance.
A hypothesis is not just a guess. It should be based on existing theories and knowledge. It also has to be testable, which means you can support or refute it through scientific research methods (such as experiments, observations, and statistical analysis of data).
A research hypothesis is your proposed answer to your research question. The research hypothesis usually includes an explanation (‘ x affects y because …’).
A statistical hypothesis, on the other hand, is a mathematical statement about a population parameter. Statistical hypotheses always come in pairs: the null and alternative hypotheses. In a well-designed study , the statistical hypotheses correspond logically to the research hypothesis.
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An in-depth analysis of quantitative and qualitative research methods
Mar 11, 2023 | 0 comments
Mar 11, 2023 | Blog | 0 comments
The approach to the research methodology is the inductive approach. According to Chandra & Sharma (2013, p.13), this approach entails starting with an observation or measures which is precise in nature, begin to identify regulations and patterns, formulate some uncertain hypothesis that when further explored we end up developing general theories and conclusion. In line with Mustafa (2012, p.8) view on inductive approach, Brunt and Hooton emulate this by starting with the research paper with the uncertain hypothesis by discussing both the positive and negative view of tourism and goes further to describe the impact that tourist-related crime has to the British resort hotel. The author tends to deduce meaning from both the secondary and primary data in order to establish a pattern as well as the relationship that emerge in the research in giving information on both the negative and positive impact that tourism brings.
Research method: The author adopted both quantitative and qualitative research method
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Quantitative Research Method
Neuman, (2018, p.11) describes this research type as a method that put emphasis on objective measurements and numerical data analysis via questionnaires, survey, and poll or even through operation of the existing statistical data through a technique that is computational in nature. The focus of this research method is on gathering data that is numerical and then generalizing to explain a certain occurrence or simplifying it across the group of people (Agarwal & Tailor 2009, p.17). The sources of quantitative data include:
- Surveys: which can be conducted either online, one on one or by phone. It entails designing the same question and the question is asked in the same way to a large number of participants (Goddard & Melville 2011, p.10)
- Secondary data: Goddard & Melville (2011, p.10) explain that this entails using data that has already been processed into information. A good example is using information or data from a government institution.
- Observation: this entails observing a particular a number of times and capture a pattern or a behavior that can be translated in numerical form then use it (Goddard & Melville 2011, p.10).
It is evident that the authors used secondary sources when they used data from Cornwall and Devon police. Data from the British crime survey as well as Crime Disorder Unit were also part of the secondary data used. The author also stated of using interviews the author also used observation to gather primary data which was helpful in providing destination information and insights into behavior pattern in the resort. On till the primary sources of data, the author also used Interviews by the use of a quantitative questionnaire which was distributed to the resident who lived near the resort.
Strength of quantitative research method
- It allows formulation of a hypothesis that is statistical in nature and that does not give room for emotional design (Neuman 2018, p. 12).
- According to Mustafa (2012, p.12), it allows sound implementation through its nature of being probabilistic and predictability, therefore, it demands evaluation of the quantitative hypothesis.
- Neuman (2019, p. 12) states that the quantitative research method enables evaluation of numerous hypothesis and datasets in a more accurate as well as faster way than how human brain perform.
- The method is capable of automating time-consuming implementation which is manual therefore it is exponentially faster (Mustafa 2012, p.12).
- A quantitative approach is also standardized, meaning the research can be simulated analyzed and used in comparison to similar studies. Agarwal & Tailor (2009, p. 7) approves this by stating that quantitative methods enable us to summarize wide sources of information and enhance the comparisons across categories over time
- It is capable of allowing the accuracy of results and greater objectivity. Basically, this research method designed to offer summaries of data that support a generalization about an occurrence that is under study. for this to be accomplished the quantitative research have got a limited number of variable and in many occasion, it employs prearranged procedures to ensures reliability and validity (Agarwal & Tailor 2009, p. 7).
- Quantitative research eliminates individual bias as researchers employ the subjects that are unfamiliar to them and there is also a distance between the researcher and the participating subjects design (Neuman 2018, p. 12).
- According to Agarwal & Tailor (2009, p. 8), quantitative research collect a much slimmer and at times artificial dataset.
- The results from the research are limited as it is subjected to numerical descriptions rather than a narrative that I detailed and generally it offers a less sumptuous account on the perception of individuals (Mustafa 2012, p.12).
- The environment in which the research is often carried out is usually artificial as well as unnatural environment with the aim of applying some degree of control to the exercise (Neuman 2018, p. 13). In the real world, this degree of control might be absent hence yielding laboratory result instead of real-world results.
- According to Agarwal & Tailor (2009, p. 8), the current answer might also not be a reflection of how the participant feels about the subject matter and in some cases, it might just be the closest to the match.
- The standardized questions by researched have got a potential of leading to bias and false representation, in a situation where data actually replicates their view instead of the participating subject (Neuman 2019, p. 13).
Qualitative research method
Contrary to the quantitative method, qualitative research method focuses on the behavior, attitude and feelings in a deeper depth (Weinberg 2002, p.5). According to Gelissen (2012, p. 8). the analysis is usually on the basis of a grounded theory practice, reactions to the questions related to “why” and finally it focusses greatly on individual cases.
The sources of qualitative research include:
- Questionnaires/surveys: besides having a series of the same question, there are prompts for the aim of gathering more information from the respondents (Weinberg 2002, p.5).
- Interviews: according to Mustafa (2012, p.22), this entails a conversation between the interviewer and the interviewee who can be one or a more people. The interviewer asks a question to obtain information from the interviewee.
- Focus group: Weinberg (2002, p.5) state that this entails a group of people being asked about their feelings towards a concept, idea or even a product.
- Observation: a single participant or a group of the participant are influenced by the researcher, for instance, they are requested to perform a specific task and then observation is made based on their behavior or attitude that they portray (Weinberg 2002, p.5).
- Discourse analysis: Gelissen (2012, p. 8) stated that this is a universal term for a number of methods that are used for analyzing spoken and written signed language use.
- Provides details and depth: – qualitative research gives deeper insight into the research and analyzing ranks and lays on feelings, attitudes and behaviours (Gelissen 2012, p. 9).
- Build openness: people are always encouraged to expound on their answer and in that, it can lead to the opening up of new areas that initially was not into consideration (Weinberg 2002, p.5).
- Triggers people’s individual experiences: a detailed image can be developed about why people take a certain action and the feelings that they usually have when they do that action (Weinberg 2002, p.5).
- Tends to avoid pre-judgments: this occurs when used hand in hand with quantitative data collection, it can provide more information about a particular response that was given (Gelissen 2012, p. 9).
- According to Mustafa (2012, p.24) usually, fewer people studied: the qualitative research is time-consuming and also needs more in regards to the staff required and the budget hence the sample size is usually reduced to a smaller size.
- Difficult to generalize: according to Weinberg (2002, p.6).the fact that the sample size would be squeezed because of the time it takes, the results out of the research cannot be generalized to that of the entire population. The researchers usually use the exact number rather than the percentage
- Difficult to make systematic comparisons. This is due to the fact that the response given in qualitative research is usually wide and divergent as well as subjective making it hard for a systematic comparison (Gelissen 2012, p. 11).
- Subject to the researcher’ skills: it I dependent on the skills and experience of the researchers especially when conduction observation, interviews and focus groups (Weinberg 2002, p.15)
The author conducted a qualitative interview alongside quantitative t for the purpose of getting more insights and different point of views from the responded
Sampling Strategy
The researchers examined through observations the traits and characteristics to determine their parameters of research (Mustafa 2012, p.23). As per Mustafa (2012, p.23), They needed a sample, a sample population of individual units who shared a level of commonality. The researchers selected individuals from whom they utilized to collect the required data through the use of questionnaires. The individuals who were selected for questionnaires are the research group’s representative sample. Their representative sample enables the researchers to obtain study results to be generalized to the target population as a unit; as a whole (Chandra & Sharma 2013, p.15). The researcher utilized a procedure of random selection to make a choice of participants. Furthermore, Chandra & Sharma (2013, p.15) points out that, the group of individuals of units that have the legitimate chance of selection by the researcher is more often than not referred to as the sampling frame.
This particular research group utilized a local association of tourism and commerce, by ailing the questionnaires to them. In total their questionnaires were seven hundred. The questions made specifically to capture the target sample within the population. The questionnaires were distributed strategically; to capture and attract the objected sample population; particularly those who had been victims or had been affected by these victimized as a result of crimes within their location. They utilized a non-probability sampling technique which does not function in the reliance on randomized strategic methods in the selection of members.
- According to Neuman (2018, p.15) utilizing a non-probability sampling method enabled a deriving of control alongside the researcher’s judgement, a judgement concluded from the researchers’ observations.
- Utilising a non-probability sampling method the research has the capability to base the research on the availability as well as interviewer judgement. This particular technique is highly convenient (Neuman 2018, p.15).
- Moreover, Neuman (2018, p.16) points out that the researcher’s choice of sampling strategy eliminated excess costs as well as saves time in the preparation of the target sample.
- Agarwal and Tailor (2009, p.10) indicated that this particular sampling technique brought about an element of uncontrolled variability as well as a significant level of bias.
- This particular method that was adapted stands highly dependent on a build in population’s knowledge of the researcher as well as the eliminating of utilization of any tools that were inferential parametric statistical in relation to generalization (Agarwal and Tailor 2009, p.10).
- Lastly, having significant reliance on the intuition as well as hunch concluded by the researcher is not effective in gaining accuracy in data collected.
Methods of Data Collection
The researchers, in this case, utilized three major methods and techniques in the research’s data collection and analysis to determine and derive the objected information. The researchers utilized observations, questionnaires as well as in-depth interviews to derive the intended and needed data.
The researchers were given the opportunity to utilize their senses and entirely makes examinations of individuals within their natural environment and situations. The additional use of questionnaires and in-depth interviews strengthened the quality of data collected. As Gelissen (2012, p.15) points out the chosen methods of data collection were inexpensive and thus highly cost-effective for the research group, they were highly practical and even flexible through various components such as being open-minded. Furthermore, the data collection methods proved scalable and more importantly provided quick feedback as compared to other methods of data collection. Nevertheless, the use of in-depth interviews personalized the experiences and therefore created an environment that made the community comfortable and more willing to share information.
Unfortunately, these chosen data collection methods have a number of demerits. For starters, the methods gave way to a significant level of bias from the population. Furthermore, the questionnaires and interviews may derive information from a point of misunderstanding and misinterpretation thus substantially compromising the quality of data collected.
Utilizing a qualitative research method would have been highly beneficial; it would have considered the existing social constructivist paradigm that makes a substantial emphasis on reality’s socially constructed nature.
Reference List
AGARWAL, N. P., & TAILOR, R. K. (2009). Quantitative research methods . Jaipur, India, Prateeksha Publications.
CHANDRA, S., & SHARMA, M. K. (2013). Research methodology .
GELISSEN, J. (2012). Qualitative research methods .
GODDARD, W., & MELVILLE, S. (2011). Research methodology . Kenwyn, South Africa, Juta & Co.
MUSTAFA, A. (2012). Research methodology . India, AITBS Publishers.
NEUMAN, W. L. (2018). Social Research Methods Qualitative and Quantitative Approaches . Pearson.
WEINBERG, D. (2002). Qualitative research methods . Oxford, OX, Blackwell Publishers.
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How to Write a Results Section | Tips & Examples
Published on August 30, 2022 by Tegan George . Revised on November 11, 2022.
A results section is where you report the main findings of the data collection and analysis you conducted for your thesis or dissertation . You should report all relevant results concisely and objectively, in a logical order. Don’t include subjective interpretations of why you found these results or what they mean—any evaluation should be saved for the discussion section .
Table of contents
How to write a results section, reporting quantitative research results, reporting qualitative research results, results vs. discussion vs. conclusion, checklist: research results, frequently asked questions about results sections.
When conducting research, it’s important to report the results of your study prior to discussing your interpretations of it. This gives your reader a clear idea of exactly what you found and keeps the data itself separate from your subjective analysis.
Here are a few best practices:
- Your results should always be written in the past tense.
- While the length of this section depends on how much data you collected and analyzed, it should be written as concisely as possible.
- Only include results that are directly relevant to answering your research questions . Avoid speculative or interpretative words like “appears” or “implies.”
- If you have other results you’d like to include, consider adding them to an appendix or footnotes.
- Always start out with your broadest results first, and then flow into your more granular (but still relevant) ones. Think of it like a shoe store: first discuss the shoes as a whole, then the sneakers, boots, sandals, etc.
If you conducted quantitative research , you’ll likely be working with the results of some sort of statistical analysis .
Your results section should report the results of any statistical tests you used to compare groups or assess relationships between variables . It should also state whether or not each hypothesis was supported.
The most logical way to structure quantitative results is to frame them around your research questions or hypotheses. For each question or hypothesis, share:
- A reminder of the type of analysis you used (e.g., a two-sample t test or simple linear regression ). A more detailed description of your analysis should go in your methodology section.
- A concise summary of each relevant result, both positive and negative. This can include any relevant descriptive statistics (e.g., means and standard deviations ) as well as inferential statistics (e.g., t scores, degrees of freedom , and p values ). Remember, these numbers are often placed in parentheses.
- A brief statement of how each result relates to the question, or whether the hypothesis was supported. You can briefly mention any results that didn’t fit with your expectations and assumptions, but save any speculation on their meaning or consequences for your discussion and conclusion.
A note on tables and figures
In quantitative research, it’s often helpful to include visual elements such as graphs, charts, and tables , but only if they are directly relevant to your results. Give these elements clear, descriptive titles and labels so that your reader can easily understand what is being shown. If you want to include any other visual elements that are more tangential in nature, consider adding a figure and table list .
As a rule of thumb:
- Tables are used to communicate exact values, giving a concise overview of various results
- Graphs and charts are used to visualize trends and relationships, giving an at-a-glance illustration of key findings
Don’t forget to also mention any tables and figures you used within the text of your results section. Summarize or elaborate on specific aspects you think your reader should know about rather than merely restating the same numbers already shown.
Figure 1: Intention to donate to environmental organizations based on social distance from impact of environmental damage.
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In qualitative research , your results might not all be directly related to specific hypotheses. In this case, you can structure your results section around key themes or topics that emerged from your analysis of the data.
For each theme, start with general observations about what the data showed. You can mention:
- Recurring points of agreement or disagreement
- Patterns and trends
- Particularly significant snippets from individual responses
Next, clarify and support these points with direct quotations. Be sure to report any relevant demographic information about participants. Further information (such as full transcripts , if appropriate) can be included in an appendix .
“I think that in role-playing games, there’s more attention to character design, to world design, because the whole story is important and more attention is paid to certain game elements […] so that perhaps you do need bigger teams of creative experts than in an average shooter or something.”
Responses suggest that video game consumers consider some types of games to have more artistic potential than others.
Your results section should objectively report your findings, presenting only brief observations in relation to each question, hypothesis, or theme.
It should not speculate about the meaning of the results or attempt to answer your main research question . Detailed interpretation of your results is more suitable for your discussion section , while synthesis of your results into an overall answer to your main research question is best left for your conclusion .
I have completed my data collection and analyzed the results.
I have included all results that are relevant to my research questions.
I have concisely and objectively reported each result, including relevant descriptive statistics and inferential statistics .
I have stated whether each hypothesis was supported or refuted.
I have used tables and figures to illustrate my results where appropriate.
All tables and figures are correctly labelled and referred to in the text.
There is no subjective interpretation or speculation on the meaning of the results.
You've finished writing up your results! Use the other checklists to further improve your thesis.
The results chapter of a thesis or dissertation presents your research results concisely and objectively.
In quantitative research , for each question or hypothesis , state:
- The type of analysis used
- Relevant results in the form of descriptive and inferential statistics
- Whether or not the alternative hypothesis was supported
In qualitative research , for each question or theme, describe:
- Recurring patterns
- Significant or representative individual responses
- Relevant quotations from the data
Don’t interpret or speculate in the results chapter.
Results are usually written in the past tense , because they are describing the outcome of completed actions.
The results chapter or section simply and objectively reports what you found, without speculating on why you found these results. The discussion interprets the meaning of the results, puts them in context, and explains why they matter.
In qualitative research , results and discussion are sometimes combined. But in quantitative research , it’s considered important to separate the objective results from your interpretation of them.
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- Technical Help
Writing a Hypothesis Statement
The purpose of a hypothesis statement is to present an educated guess (i.e., a hypothesis) about the relationship between a set of factors. These factors are referred to as independent and dependent variables . The hypothesis statement presents the basis for the study which is an experiment to test the proposed relationship between the variables.
In quantitative research a variable is a feature or characteristic that has a quantity or quality that can be measured. There are different types of variables, but it is important to distinguish an independent variable from a dependent variable.
Independent variables
In a scientific experiment, the independent variable is the variable that the researcher changes or controls. The independent variable creates the test situation for the dependent variable. As the independent variable is changed, the researcher looks to see how the dependent variable changes in response. There can be more than one independent variable in a study.
Dependent variables
In an experiment, the dependent variable is the variable being tested. As a researcher changes or controls the independent variable they look to see how it affects the dependent variable. Because the result is the outcome of the study, a dependent variable is also referred to as the outcome variable. There can be more than one dependent variable in a study.
Example of independent variable/dependent variable relationship: If you were studying the effectiveness between in-person tutoring vs. using a how-to checklist in relation to student achievement on essay exams:
- The independent variable is the type of instruction being used: in-person tutoring vs. a how-to checklist .
- The dependent variable is the achievement on essay exams .
For more information on variables see the following:
Lavrakas, P. J. (2008). Dependent variable . In Encyclopedia of survey research methods . SAGE Publications.
Lavrakas, P. J. (2008). Independent variable . In Encyclopedia of survey research methods . SAGE Publications.
Powers, A. (2010). Dependent variable . In Dictionary of nursing theory and research . New York, NY: Springer.
Powers, A. (2010). Independent variable . In Dictionary of nursing theory and research . New York, NY: Springer.
Both the hypothesis statement and the thesis statement answer the research question of the study. When the statement is one that can be proved or disproved, it is a hypothesis statement. If, instead, the statement specifically shows the intentions/objectives/position of the researcher, it is a thesis statement.
A hypothesis is a statement that can be proved or disproved. It is typically used in quantitative research and predicts the relationship between variables.
A thesis statement is a short, direct sentence that summarizes the main point or claim of an essay or research paper. It is seen in quantitative, qualitative, and mixed methods research. A thesis statement is developed, supported, and explained in the body of the essay or research report by means of examples and evidence. For more information on writing the thesis statement, see this page .
Every research study should contain a concise and well-written thesis statement. If the intent of the study is to prove/disprove something, that research report will also contain an hypothesis statement.
NOTE : In some disciplines, the hypothesis is referred to as a thesis statement! This is not accurate but within those disciplines it is understood that "a short, direct sentence that summarizes the main point" will be included.
When developing a hypothesis statement, you will want to be sure it is specific enough to be feasibly studied. A hypothesis statement will operationalize the research question . To operationalize is to strictly define the variables in your study into measurable factors .
“The hypotheses will normally be stated in null or alternative forms, and most reviewers prefer the null hypothesis form. The null hypothesis (H 0 ) postulates the existence of no relationship between the variables of interest; we then attempt to assemble sufficient evidence to suggest that, statistically, the null hypothesis is not a reasonable assumption. If we have no prior evidence to suggest a direction of causality, then we have no alternative but to adopt a null hypothesis format . ”
Smith, M. (2003). Theory, literature and hypotheses . In Research methods in accounting (p. 52). SAGE Publications.
Example of alternative and null hypotheses:
Alternative hypothesis (H 1 ):
High school students who receive in-person tutoring as opposed to an assignment checklist will show a higher increase in achievement scores on essay exams than students who have not.
Null hypothesis (H 0 ):
High school students who receive in-person tutoring as opposed to an assignment checklist do not show a higher increase in achievement scores on essay exams than students who have not.
Examples of effective and ineffective hypothesis statements:
Ineffective hypothesis: International theory explains why the United States struck a nuclear arms deal with Iran.
Why is it ineffective?
- While this statement makes a claim, it does not indicate a direct correlation or relationship that can be tested or measured.
- The concept international theory is not a testable variable; rather, it is the basis for the theoretical frame for the study.
- Why is not a question that is typically addressed in quantitative research. Quantitative research aims to determine evidence or facts from which conclusions can be identified or deduced.
- Nuclear arms deal is a generic event. If it is to be used as an influencing (independent) or resulting (dependent) variable, it would need to be more narrowly defined.
Effective hypothesis: If a country is perceived as a strong military power then success in nuclear arms negotiations with other countries will be perceived by the less powerful nations as directionally in favor of the dominant nation.
Why is it effective?
- The study identifies a directional relationship between power and negotiation success.
- The relationship is posited (hypothesized) to be causal.
- Each variable is two parts: strong power versus weak power and favorable versus unfavorable.
- The dependent variable (favorability) is directional, which adds extra dimension to the study.
- The variables are measurable.
(This example is based on the hypotheses in Rousseau, D. L., & Garcia-Retamero, R. (2007). Identity, power, and threat perception: A cross-national experimental study . Journal of Conflict Resolution , 51 (5), 744-771.)
For more information on writing a hypothesis statement see the following:
Anglim, J. (2009, December 21). How to write predictions and hypotheses in psychological research reports .
Farrugia, P., Petrisor, B. A., Farrokhyar, F., & Bhandari, M. (2010). Research questions, hypotheses and objectives . Canadian Journal of Surgery , 53 (4), 278–281.
Hoy, W. K. (2010). Analyzing the structure and substance of hypotheses . In Quantitative research in education: A primer (pp. 67-90). Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications.
Prasad, S., Rao, A., & Rehani, E. (2001). Developing hypothesis and research questions .
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What is and How to Write a Good Hypothesis in Research?
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Table of Contents
One of the most important aspects of conducting research is constructing a strong hypothesis. But what makes a hypothesis in research effective? In this article, we’ll look at the difference between a hypothesis and a research question, as well as the elements of a good hypothesis in research. We’ll also include some examples of effective hypotheses, and what pitfalls to avoid.
What is a Hypothesis in Research?
Simply put, a hypothesis is a research question that also includes the predicted or expected result of the research. Without a hypothesis, there can be no basis for a scientific or research experiment. As such, it is critical that you carefully construct your hypothesis by being deliberate and thorough, even before you set pen to paper. Unless your hypothesis is clearly and carefully constructed, any flaw can have an adverse, and even grave, effect on the quality of your experiment and its subsequent results.
Research Question vs Hypothesis
It’s easy to confuse research questions with hypotheses, and vice versa. While they’re both critical to the Scientific Method, they have very specific differences. Primarily, a research question, just like a hypothesis, is focused and concise. But a hypothesis includes a prediction based on the proposed research, and is designed to forecast the relationship of and between two (or more) variables. Research questions are open-ended, and invite debate and discussion, while hypotheses are closed, e.g. “The relationship between A and B will be C.”
A hypothesis is generally used if your research topic is fairly well established, and you are relatively certain about the relationship between the variables that will be presented in your research. Since a hypothesis is ideally suited for experimental studies, it will, by its very existence, affect the design of your experiment. The research question is typically used for new topics that have not yet been researched extensively. Here, the relationship between different variables is less known. There is no prediction made, but there may be variables explored. The research question can be casual in nature, simply trying to understand if a relationship even exists, descriptive or comparative.
How to Write Hypothesis in Research
Writing an effective hypothesis starts before you even begin to type. Like any task, preparation is key, so you start first by conducting research yourself, and reading all you can about the topic that you plan to research. From there, you’ll gain the knowledge you need to understand where your focus within the topic will lie.
Remember that a hypothesis is a prediction of the relationship that exists between two or more variables. Your job is to write a hypothesis, and design the research, to “prove” whether or not your prediction is correct. A common pitfall is to use judgments that are subjective and inappropriate for the construction of a hypothesis. It’s important to keep the focus and language of your hypothesis objective.
An effective hypothesis in research is clearly and concisely written, and any terms or definitions clarified and defined. Specific language must also be used to avoid any generalities or assumptions.
Use the following points as a checklist to evaluate the effectiveness of your research hypothesis:
- Predicts the relationship and outcome
- Simple and concise – avoid wordiness
- Clear with no ambiguity or assumptions about the readers’ knowledge
- Observable and testable results
- Relevant and specific to the research question or problem
Research Hypothesis Example
Perhaps the best way to evaluate whether or not your hypothesis is effective is to compare it to those of your colleagues in the field. There is no need to reinvent the wheel when it comes to writing a powerful research hypothesis. As you’re reading and preparing your hypothesis, you’ll also read other hypotheses. These can help guide you on what works, and what doesn’t, when it comes to writing a strong research hypothesis.
Here are a few generic examples to get you started.
Eating an apple each day, after the age of 60, will result in a reduction of frequency of physician visits.
Budget airlines are more likely to receive more customer complaints. A budget airline is defined as an airline that offers lower fares and fewer amenities than a traditional full-service airline. (Note that the term “budget airline” is included in the hypothesis.
Workplaces that offer flexible working hours report higher levels of employee job satisfaction than workplaces with fixed hours.
Each of the above examples are specific, observable and measurable, and the statement of prediction can be verified or shown to be false by utilizing standard experimental practices. It should be noted, however, that often your hypothesis will change as your research progresses.
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Elsevier’s Language Editing Plus service can help ensure that your research hypothesis is well-designed, and articulates your research and conclusions. Our most comprehensive editing package, you can count on a thorough language review by native-English speakers who are PhDs or PhD candidates. We’ll check for effective logic and flow of your manuscript, as well as document formatting for your chosen journal, reference checks, and much more.
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Forming a Good Hypothesis for Scientific Research
Kendra Cherry, MS, is an author and educational consultant focused on helping students learn about psychology.
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Verywell / Alex Dos Diaz
- The Scientific Method
Formulating a Hypothesis
Falsifiability, operational definitions, types of hypotheses, examples of hypotheses.
- Collecting Data
A hypothesis is a tentative statement about the relationship between two or more variables. It is a specific, testable prediction about what you expect to happen in a study.
For example, a study designed to look at the relationship between sleep deprivation and test performance might have a hypothesis that states, "This study is designed to assess the hypothesis that sleep-deprived people will perform worse on a test than individuals who are not sleep-deprived."
This article explores how a hypothesis is used in psychology research, how to write a good hypothesis, and the different types of hypotheses you might use.
The Hypothesis in the Scientific Method
In the scientific method, whether it involves research in psychology, biology, or some other area, a hypothesis represents what the researchers think will happen in an experiment. The scientific method involves the following steps:
- Forming a question
- Performing background research
- Creating a hypothesis
- Designing an experiment
- Collecting data
- Analyzing the results
- Drawing conclusions
- Communicating the results
The hypothesis is a prediction, but it involves more than a guess. Most of the time, the hypothesis begins with a question which is then explored through background research. It is only at this point that researchers begin to develop a testable hypothesis. Unless you are creating an exploratory study, your hypothesis should always explain what you expect to happen.
In a study exploring the effects of a particular drug, the hypothesis might be that researchers expect the drug to have some type of effect on the symptoms of a specific illness. In psychology, the hypothesis might focus on how a certain aspect of the environment might influence a particular behavior.
Remember, a hypothesis does not have to be correct. While the hypothesis predicts what the researchers expect to see, the goal of the research is to determine whether this guess is right or wrong. When conducting an experiment, researchers might explore a number of factors to determine which ones might contribute to the ultimate outcome.
In many cases, researchers may find that the results of an experiment do not support the original hypothesis. When writing up these results, the researchers might suggest other options that should be explored in future studies.
In many cases, researchers might draw a hypothesis from a specific theory or build on previous research. For example, prior research has shown that stress can impact the immune system. So a researcher might hypothesize: "People with high-stress levels will be more likely to contract a common cold after being exposed to the virus than people who have low-stress levels."
In other instances, researchers might look at commonly held beliefs or folk wisdom. "Birds of a feather flock together" is one example of folk wisdom that a psychologist might try to investigate. The researcher might pose a specific hypothesis that "People tend to select romantic partners who are similar to them in interests and educational level."
Elements of a Good Hypothesis
So how do you write a good hypothesis? When trying to come up with a hypothesis for your research or experiments, ask yourself the following questions:
- Is your hypothesis based on your research on a topic?
- Can your hypothesis be tested?
- Does your hypothesis include independent and dependent variables?
Before you come up with a specific hypothesis, spend some time doing background research. Once you have completed a literature review, start thinking about potential questions you still have. Pay attention to the discussion section in the journal articles you read . Many authors will suggest questions that still need to be explored.
To form a hypothesis, you should take these steps:
- Collect as many observations about a topic or problem as you can.
- Evaluate these observations and look for possible causes of the problem.
- Create a list of possible explanations that you might want to explore.
- After you have developed some possible hypotheses, think of ways that you could confirm or disprove each hypothesis through experimentation. This is known as falsifiability.
In the scientific method , falsifiability is an important part of any valid hypothesis. In order to test a claim scientifically, it must be possible that the claim could be proven false.
Students sometimes confuse the idea of falsifiability with the idea that it means that something is false, which is not the case. What falsifiability means is that if something was false, then it is possible to demonstrate that it is false.
One of the hallmarks of pseudoscience is that it makes claims that cannot be refuted or proven false.
A variable is a factor or element that can be changed and manipulated in ways that are observable and measurable. However, the researcher must also define how the variable will be manipulated and measured in the study.
For example, a researcher might operationally define the variable " test anxiety " as the results of a self-report measure of anxiety experienced during an exam. A "study habits" variable might be defined by the amount of studying that actually occurs as measured by time.
These precise descriptions are important because many things can be measured in a number of different ways. One of the basic principles of any type of scientific research is that the results must be replicable. By clearly detailing the specifics of how the variables were measured and manipulated, other researchers can better understand the results and repeat the study if needed.
Some variables are more difficult than others to define. How would you operationally define a variable such as aggression ? For obvious ethical reasons, researchers cannot create a situation in which a person behaves aggressively toward others.
In order to measure this variable, the researcher must devise a measurement that assesses aggressive behavior without harming other people. In this situation, the researcher might utilize a simulated task to measure aggressiveness.
Hypothesis Checklist
- Does your hypothesis focus on something that you can actually test?
- Does your hypothesis include both an independent and dependent variable?
- Can you manipulate the variables?
- Can your hypothesis be tested without violating ethical standards?
The hypothesis you use will depend on what you are investigating and hoping to find. Some of the main types of hypotheses that you might use include:
- Simple hypothesis : This type of hypothesis suggests that there is a relationship between one independent variable and one dependent variable.
- Complex hypothesis : This type of hypothesis suggests a relationship between three or more variables, such as two independent variables and a dependent variable.
- Null hypothesis : This hypothesis suggests no relationship exists between two or more variables.
- Alternative hypothesis : This hypothesis states the opposite of the null hypothesis.
- Statistical hypothesis : This hypothesis uses statistical analysis to evaluate a representative sample of the population and then generalizes the findings to the larger group.
- Logical hypothesis : This hypothesis assumes a relationship between variables without collecting data or evidence.
A hypothesis often follows a basic format of "If {this happens} then {this will happen}." One way to structure your hypothesis is to describe what will happen to the dependent variable if you change the independent variable .
The basic format might be: "If {these changes are made to a certain independent variable}, then we will observe {a change in a specific dependent variable}."
A few examples of simple hypotheses:
- "Students who eat breakfast will perform better on a math exam than students who do not eat breakfast."
- Complex hypothesis: "Students who experience test anxiety before an English exam will get lower scores than students who do not experience test anxiety."
- "Motorists who talk on the phone while driving will be more likely to make errors on a driving course than those who do not talk on the phone."
Examples of a complex hypothesis include:
- "People with high-sugar diets and sedentary activity levels are more likely to develop depression."
- "Younger people who are regularly exposed to green, outdoor areas have better subjective well-being than older adults who have limited exposure to green spaces."
Examples of a null hypothesis include:
- "Children who receive a new reading intervention will have scores different than students who do not receive the intervention."
- "There will be no difference in scores on a memory recall task between children and adults."
Examples of an alternative hypothesis:
- "Children who receive a new reading intervention will perform better than students who did not receive the intervention."
- "Adults will perform better on a memory task than children."
Collecting Data on Your Hypothesis
Once a researcher has formed a testable hypothesis, the next step is to select a research design and start collecting data. The research method depends largely on exactly what they are studying. There are two basic types of research methods: descriptive research and experimental research.
Descriptive Research Methods
Descriptive research such as case studies , naturalistic observations , and surveys are often used when it would be impossible or difficult to conduct an experiment . These methods are best used to describe different aspects of a behavior or psychological phenomenon.
Once a researcher has collected data using descriptive methods, a correlational study can then be used to look at how the variables are related. This type of research method might be used to investigate a hypothesis that is difficult to test experimentally.
Experimental Research Methods
Experimental methods are used to demonstrate causal relationships between variables. In an experiment, the researcher systematically manipulates a variable of interest (known as the independent variable) and measures the effect on another variable (known as the dependent variable).
Unlike correlational studies, which can only be used to determine if there is a relationship between two variables, experimental methods can be used to determine the actual nature of the relationship—whether changes in one variable actually cause another to change.
A Word From Verywell
The hypothesis is a critical part of any scientific exploration. It represents what researchers expect to find in a study or experiment. In situations where the hypothesis is unsupported by the research, the research still has value. Such research helps us better understand how different aspects of the natural world relate to one another. It also helps us develop new hypotheses that can then be tested in the future.
Castillo M. The scientific method: a need for something better? . AJNR Am J Neuroradiol. 2013;34(9):1669-71. doi:10.3174/ajnr.A3401
Nevid J. Psychology: Concepts and Applications. Wadworth, 2013.
By Kendra Cherry Kendra Cherry, MS, is an author and educational consultant focused on helping students learn about psychology.
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Developing a hypothesis (with example) Step 1. Ask a question Writing a hypothesis begins with a research question that you want to answer. The question should be focused, specific, and researchable within the constraints of your project. Example: Research question Do students who attend more lectures get better exam results? Step 2.
Hypotheses are the testable statements linked to your research question. Hypotheses bridge the gap from the general question you intend to investigate (i.e., the research question) to concise statements of what you hypothesize the connection between your variables to be.
Alternatively, a script for a quantitative null hypothesis might be as follows: There is no significant difference between _____ (the control and experimental groups on the independent variable) on _____ (dependent variable). Guidelines for writing good quantitative research questions and hypotheses include the following.
Three Ways to Phrase a Hypothesis Try to use "if"… and "then"… to identify the variables. The independent variable should be present in the first part of the hypothesis, while the dependent variable will form the second part of the statement.
First, you use descriptive statistics to get a summary of the data. You find the mean (average) and the mode (most frequent rating) of procrastination of the two groups, and plot the data to see if there are any outliers. Next, you perform inferential statistics to test your hypothesis.
"A hypothesis is a conjectural statement of the relation between two or more variables". (Kerlinger, 1956) "Hypothesis is a formal statement that presents the expected relationship between an independent and dependent variable."(Creswell, 1994) "A research question is essentially a hypothesis asked in the form of a question."
A research hypothesis is your proposed answer to your research question. The research hypothesis usually includes an explanation ("x affects y because …"). A statistical hypothesis, on the other hand, is a mathematical statement about a population parameter. Statistical hypotheses always come in pairs: the null and alternative hypotheses.
Alternatively, researchers can change the question into a positive statement that includes a relationship that exists between the variables. In turn, this latter statement becomes the alternative hypothesis and is symbolized as H1. Hence, some of the examples of research questions and hull and alternative hypotheses are as follows: 1.
In a quantitative study, the formulated statistical hypothesis has two forms, the null hypothesis (Ho) and the alternative hypothesis (Ha). In general, hypotheses for quantitative research have three types: Descriptive Hypothesis, Comparative Hypothesis, and Associative Hypothesis. Descriptive Hypothesis
Example: Research objectives. To assess the relationship between sedentary habits and muscle atrophy among the participants. To determine the impact of dietary factors, particularly protein consumption, on the muscular health of the participants. To determine the effect of physical activity on the participants' muscular health.
A hypothesis should instantly address the research question or the problem statement. To do so, you need to ask a question. Understand the constraints of your undertaken research topic and then formulate a simple and topic-centric problem. Only after that can you develop a hypothesis and further test for evidence. 2. Carry out a recce
Quantitative research is expressed in numbers and graphs. It is used to test or confirm theories and assumptions. This type of research can be used to establish generalizable facts about a topic. Common quantitative methods include experiments, observations recorded as numbers, and surveys with closed-ended questions.
Writing a Hypothesis (The Quantitative Research Proposal Series) The Doctoral Journey 21.1K subscribers Subscribe 61K views 5 years ago This tutorial overviews the key elements of a well...
The types of research hypothesis are stated below: 1. Simple Hypothesis It predicts the relationship between a single dependent variable and a single independent variable. 2. Complex Hypothesis It predicts the relationship between two or more independent and dependent variables. 3. Directional Hypothesis
The first step involved in writing a research hypothesis is having a question that you want to answer. This question should be specific and within the scope of your research area. Make sure that the question that you ask is researchable within the time duration of your research study. The examples of research hypothesis questions can be
Step 6. Write a null hypothesis. If your research involves statistical hypothesis testing, you will also have to write a null hypothesis. The null hypothesis is the default position that there is no association between the variables. The null hypothesis is written as H 0, while the alternative hypothesis is H 1 or H a.
Qualitative research method. Contrary to the quantitative method, qualitative research method focuses on the behavior, attitude and feelings in a deeper depth (Weinberg 2002, p.5). According to Gelissen (2012, p. 8). the analysis is usually on the basis of a grounded theory practice, reactions to the questions related to "why" and finally ...
It should also state whether or not each hypothesis was supported. The most logical way to structure quantitative results is to frame them around your research questions or hypotheses. For each question or hypothesis, share: A reminder of the type of analysis you used (e.g., a two-sample t test or simple linear regression).
Writing a Hypothesis Statement. A hypothesis (or hypothesis statement) is a statement that can be proved or disproved. It is typically used in quantitative research and predicts the relationship between variables. The purpose of a hypothesis statement is to present an educated guess (i.e., a hypothesis) about the relationship between a set of ...
An effective hypothesis in research is clearly and concisely written, and any terms or definitions clarified and defined. Specific language must also be used to avoid any generalities or assumptions. Use the following points as a checklist to evaluate the effectiveness of your research hypothesis: Predicts the relationship and outcome
Creating a hypothesis. Designing an experiment. Collecting data. Analyzing the results. Drawing conclusions. Communicating the results. The hypothesis is a prediction, but it involves more than a guess. Most of the time, the hypothesis begins with a question which is then explored through background research.